Gender problems of women in management. Early Research The focus of much of the early research on gender issues at work attempted to determine the factors responsible for the problems. As noted by Talley (1988), this early research demonstrated that women in management, especially at the highest levels of management, were consistently underrepresented and underutilized. An example of the type of research that was being conducted at this time can be seen in research conducted by Gerike (1983) who compared a group of 34 women in middle and senior management positions, most of whom were the only woman at their level, with a group of 34 men matched to them only by job position or job title. The data were collected by sending a long questionnaire designed by the researchers to the sample of female managers. According to Gerike (1983), the study results showed a repeated pattern of gender-based discrimination. Specifically, women managers were found to have lower power and status than men, based on lower salaries; they were also less involved than males in budgetary matters. Additionally, managers more often trained and supervised employees of their own gender. Female managers had longer average tenures in their organizations but less managerial experience. They were paid significantly less than men with equal experience when the duration of work for both was less than five years. Women's income, but not men's, was positively correlated with prior policymaking experience. Female managers were less involved in informal interactions with colleagues, such as dining and socializing, and most of them were single (11 women, 1 man). Slightly lower levels of risky behaviors... half of the document .. .... used in the study was from the Current Population Survey, March 1982. Analyzes revealed that education was significant in explaining the wage gap only for the sample of sellers. Marital status was significant only for the sample of male salespeople. Age and hours worked were also significant in explaining wage differentials for female salespeople, male sales managers or department heads, and male salespeople. Hours worked was the only variable significant in explaining wage differences between married female and single female shoppers. Birth order and its effects on the gender-related factor of attitudes toward women managers were examined in a study conducted by Brenner and Beutell (1989). Since birth order is one of the variables that will be examined in this study, Brenner and Beutell's study is relevant to the proposed research.